The Lamborghini Gallardo (pronounced: guy-yar-doh) is a sports car built by Lamborghini. The Gallardo is Lamborghini’s most-produced model to date, with 5,000 built in the first three years of production. It is less expensive than Lamborghini’s larger, more powerful Murciélago. The car is named after a famous breed of fighting bull. The Spanish word gallardo translates into “gallant”.

Making its worldwide premiere in Geneva, Lamborghini’s facelifted Gallardo features a series of styling and mechanical updates including a more powerful V10 engine. Design-wise, the all-wheel-drive coupe from Sant’Agata stands out thanks to the more aggressively styled front and rear-ends that give the Gallardo LP560-4 a menacing new look.

Looks however are only half the story on the 2009 Gallardo LP560-4 as Lamborghini upgraded the 5.2-liter V10 engine that now develops 560 Hp at 8,000 rpm.

The increase of 40 Hp compared with that of the previous Gallardo, and the approximate 20 kg or 44 lbs reduction in weight, improves the power weight ratio to 2.5 kg per Hp and thus enhances performance.

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According to Lambo, the LP560-4 accelerates from 0-100 km/h (62 mph) in 3.7 sec; its speed at 11.8 sec is 200 km/h (124 mph) while its top speed lies at 325 km/h or 202 mph. At the same time, fuel consumption and CO2 emissions have been reduced by 18 per cent.

Additionally, Lamborghini’s engineers have also redesigned the four-wheel drive transmission and the suspension improving traction, handling and stability at high speeds.

Powerful elegance

A Lamborghini is and always will be a highly efficient athlete. Its extreme sensuality is based upon precision, performance and on spontaneous action. A Lamborghini’s elegance is that of stark, purist strength. This DNA of the Lamborghini brand is being continuously developed by the Centro Stile in every new car. Thus the Gallardo LP560-4 displays the precise lines and clean surface edges in its distinctly minimalist design. Ornaments or embellishments of any form are alien to it.

Evolution of form systematically follows the demands of function: the newly designed front of the LP 560-4 squats deeply to the ground which contributes to its aerodynamic efficiency. The enlarged and clearly accentuated cooling intakes meet the demands of augmented engine power thus increasing the air circulation vital to a vehicle as powerful as this. The spoiler, positioned low between the air intakes, improves aerodynamic equilibrium at high speeds.

Characteristic LED – Daytime running light

The new headlights have a characteristic ‘daytime’ running light integrated beneath the Bi-Xenon lamps: 15 diodes (LED) have been positioned in a Y structure. The same motif appears again in the rear tail-lights. The stop and brake lights have been inspired by the Miura Concept, the Murciélago LP640 and the Reventón and display the Y form three times over.

The completely redesigned rear gives the definition “powerful elegance” a new meaning: rear lights, air cooling vents, bumper and diffuser are arranged in precise positions on the car’s exterior, which make the LP560-4 appear extremely wide and bonded to the road surface. In addition, the streamlined covers left and right of the engine hood accentuate the powerful shoulders and lengthened, stretched lines of the new Gallardo.

Clearly improved aerodynamics

The rear diffuser has been newly designed, is more efficient with respect to its predecessor and, together with the smooth underbody, contributes to the excellent steering stability even at extremely high speeds. In sum, the aerodynamic efficiency with regard to output compared to that of its predecessor has been increased by 31 %. The Gallardo LP560-4 takes fast curves even more supremely.

The designers in Sant’Agata Bolognese have excelled themselves with the clear-cut, pure, stark lines of the Gallardo LP 560-4. They also have demonstrated distinct attention to detail; the elaborate aluminium cap for petrol and motor oil are testimony to this, as is the rear camera which has been integrated in a small fin in the independent rear spoiler as well as the finely-crafted grille in the exhaust pipes.

The body

Weight is undesirable in a sports car and a lightweight model encourages the dynamics of such a vehicle. Aluminium is much lighter than sheet steel and this is why the Gallardo LP560-4 is produced with a body in a much lighter but nevertheless more stiff structure: the two-seater car measures 4.34 metres in length, 1.90 metres in width and a mere 1.16 metres in height. It weighs in dry at 1410 kilograms - which is, effectively, 20 kilograms less that that of the previous Gallardo.

The construction of the Gallardo LP560-4 utilises what is known as a ‘spaceframe construction method’. Integrally moulded node elements and extruded parts create its frame, and sheet metal plates made out of aluminium have been neatly and securely integrated to form the body. The body is not only extremely light but also torsionally stiff and displays the highest safety characteristics. Thus the basis for the extraordinary handling characteristics of the LP560-4 is formed.

Integrated Pedestrian Protection system

The body of the car also demonstrates extremely high levels of ‘passive security’. The Gallardo LP560-4 fulfils the not yet obligatory European directives regarding the protection of pedestrians. Furthermore, the geometry of the entire front of the car has been optimised with the addition of a special combination of materials behind the front bumper which serve to absorb any impact energy.

The Interior

Luxurious individuality

Despite its low exterior height, the Gallardo LP560-4 welcomes its passengers with a spacious interior. The sports seats are covered with either fine leather or Alcantara® (upon request) and provide secure adherence and support. The position of the seats is very low, typical for sportscars. There is space behind the seats for luggage which complements the 110 litre front trunk.

The wide middle console is one of the elements which characterizes the impression of sporty dynamism in the interior. It accommodates the standard Lamborghini multimedia system as well as the air conditioning which can be regulated on both the driver’s and passenger’s sides. Between both of these elements lies a newly designed module consisting of classically elegant flip switches.

Seven round instruments in the cockpit with a new graphic provide the driver with essential engine data and a multifunctional display between the speedometer and revolution counter provides the driver with important information.

Workmanship of the highest quality

The Miura and the other models of the 60s were already characterized by the excellent quality of workmanship which lay far and above the general standards of that time. Lamborghini has continued this tradition and even today delivers automobiles of the highest standards. The Gallardo LP560-4 indulges with the highest quality, aesthetically pleasing materials. With regard to the leather interior, an array of different colours and stitching (also in contrasting colours) are available. As an optional, Lamborghini can deliver the Gallardo LP560-4 with a further choice of leather and Alcantara® interiors as well as Carbon Fibre Packages. Here, elements such as the air-conditioning surrounds, the control panel, the handbrake handle and the gear-stick surrounds are available in carbon fibre.

Furthermore, the individualisation program, Ad Personam, enables the customer to create any combination of colour and trim, thus creating a highly personalised vehicle. After all, the new Lamborghini should perfectly reflect the owner’s lifestyle.

The Engine

Extreme power in every situation

The engine of the Gallardo LP560-4 is a completely new development. All that remains of the original V10 is the number of cylinders which, in this performance category, create a perfect and unique synthesis of torque, force of movement, sporty nimbleness, compact size and low weight.

The engine has a 5204 cm3 volumetric displacement which, with 8.000 rpm creates the extreme 560 PS (412 kW). This results in the excellent performance per litre of 107.6 PS/lt. At maximum torque output, the engine yields 540 Newtonmeter at 6.500 rpm. The ample torque curve guarantees outstanding thrust from every engine speed. With an acceleration of 3.7 seconds from 0-100 km/h and a maximum speed of 325 km/h, the Gallardo LP560-4 shoots into the orbit of the most extreme and powerful sports cars.

Despite the clearly improved driving performance of this super sports car, Sant’Agata’s engineers were nevertheless able to achieve a reduction in fuel consumption and CO2emissions by 18 per cent. Measured by engine power and performance, the Gallardo LP560-4 e-gear’s average fuel consumption of 13.7 litres per 100 kilometers, is extremely low.

Perfect weight distribution, class-leading dynamics

The engine in this new model lies lengthways in front of the rear axle – hence the model description Longitudinale Posteriore. The concept of the mid – rear engine is unbeatable in sports car production, with the centre of gravity being displaced next to the vertical axis, thus creating the car’s exceptional dynamics. Furthermore, it creates the basis for the Gallardo LP560-4’s perfect weight distribution with 43 per cent on the front axle and 57 per cent on the rear. In combination with the permanent four-wheel drive transmission, superior driving stability and road adherence are guaranteed in all situations.

Reduced weight for inspirational torque

The crank case of the new ten cylinder of Lamborghini Gallardo is produced with an aluminium alloy. Separate cylinder liners are not necessary with this technology: instead, the liners, due to their exposure to the hard silicone crystals during the production phase, are bored directly out of the material. The connecting rods are made out of wrought steel and the pistons are produced from an aluminium alloy. The consequent reduction in weight, inertia and in friction losses contributes to the car’s inspirational torque.

The engine is unusually wide for a V10, with a cylinder angle of 90 degrees. A definite advantage of this construction is the low centre of gravity. The reduction of the gravity centre height comes also from the dry sump layout of the lubrication system which also guarantees the reliability of the oil supply even during lateral acceleration and on the race-track.

Direct fuel injection improves efficient combustion

The new V10 uses the direct fuel-injection system “Iniezione Diretta Stratificata” as an innovative way to optimize performance results in part-load conditions. Here, the fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber through the laterally positioned injector.

Combined with the use of a ‘tumble flap’ in the intake manifold runners, this solution guarantees an optimized distribution of the gasoline in the combustion chamber (higher gasoline density around the spark plug, leaner mixture close to piston and cylinder liners) and delivers the basis for a highly efficient combustion system even with stoichiometric mean mixture composition. The direct injection boosts the extremely efficient ‘full load’ performance of the V10, reduces its knock sensitivity and thus enables the very high compression ratio of 12.5:1. The cylinder heads have been optimised to deliver a very quick gas exchange and the variable valve control system on all four camshafts improves the charge efficiency across the entire engine speed range.

Transmission

Superior control four-wheel drive

Such extreme power must be brought onto the streets with extreme reliability. The driver of a Gallardo LP560-4 can thus rely on the four-wheel drive Viscous Traction (VT) system, with the ‘4’ in the model name a reminder of this. Lamborghini already introduced this system with the Diablo VT in 1993 – and for good reason: four actuated wheels achieve more grip than two and permit acceleration earlier in the curve exit.

The protagonist in the transmission is the central viscous-coupling which requires no electronic control. In this special Lamborghini configuration, the driving torque is distributed between front and rear – generally with a 30:70 front to rear ratio and, within milliseconds, adapts to even the slightest variations in road conditions. A mechanical differential on the rear axle provides up to 45% limited slip and an electronic differential lock at the front complete the four-wheel drive system.

Superior traction and handling

Not only does the maximum traction take advantage of the permanent four-wheel drive system, but also the car’s clearly superior handling. Each wheel can only transfer a certain amount of torque to the road. As the propulsion power is distributed onto all four wheels through the viscous traction system, more potential for directional control remains – and reserves in every situation distinguish a perfectly made sports car.

Despite all the engine thrust, changing gears in the Gallardo LP560-4 is one of the most exciting experiences of driving this vehicle. It is still the customer’s personal preference as to whether he wishes to change gears manually through the exact ‘gate’ guides of the six-speed gearbox via the short gear stick, or whether he prefers to let his fingertips control the e.gear’s paddle-shift system located behind the steering wheel: the latter solution becoming the preference of the majority of Lamborghini customers.

Gear change time reduced by 40 per cent

The automated e-gear transmission has been completely redesigned and improved in all aspects. The complete system has not only been reduced in weight, but the time employed to change gears has also been reduced by 40 per cent in “CORSA” mode. The driver may choose between five different driving and changing programs: in addition to the ‘normal’ mode, the Gallardo LP560-4 offers a SPORT programm with its even more rapid gear changing times and increased number of revolutions.

The CORSA program directs the engine to optimum acceleration. It permits a greater slip angle and also allows – with maximum safety - the full dynamism of the LP560-4 to be enjoyed even on a race-track. The ‘Thrust Mode’ ensures maximum acceleration from neutral while the angle of the throttle valve and the clutch are here optimally adjusted to one another. Finally the Automatic mode: here the engine changes gear in total independence and permits a particularly comfortable mode of driving.

The Suspension

High-tech parts with Lamborghini know-how

Even the Gallardo LP560-4’s predecessor was one of the world’s best super sports cars with regard to handling, precision and driving stability. However, the latest model provides an even more intense driving experience: the new suspension improves the car’s handling, its driving comfort and its directional stability at high speeds.

The Gallardo LP560-4’s space frame is uncompromisingly high tech. Its technical production was conceived from motor sport technologies. The double wishbones made out of aluminium with newly designed kinematics, while the springs and shock absorbers are tightly adjusted for grip.

The rear axle now has an additional track rod which further improves the excellent control of this super sports vehicle. Newly developed elements are the rubber-metal bearings - authentic high-tech parts – which clearly improve the special Lamborghini driving dynamics with well-chosen material combinations and cleverly defined assembly.

Extreme road adherence

The steering rack works with relatively little assisted steering support, thus bonding the driver closely to the road. This in turn provides him with an intense experience of power and impulse. The steering has its own cooling system for the power steering fluid.

Precise, breathtakingly fast, whilst stable and free from surprises, the Gallardo LP560-4’s dynamics assures a sensuous experience. The LP560-4’s tyres (format 235/35 ZR 19 front and 295/30 ZR 19 rear) appear to bond with the asphalt. Specially developed Pirelli P-Zero series tyres are fitted: these have a particularly low roll resistance which also maintains tyre wear at a minimum without, of course, any reduction in their performance quality. At a speed of over 120 km/h an independently extended rear spoiler increases the downforce on the rear axle It acts in association with the specially formed underbody which directs the airstream under the car.

Optional Carbon Ceramic Brake system

The new braking system acts with brute force. At the front, eight ‘Brembo specialist’ cylinder callipers grasp the 365 mm diameter brake discs. At the rear, four cylinder callipers act on the 356 mm brake discs. In addition, the new disc ventilation system improves the stability in extreme situations. Optionally, discs made out of Carbon Ceramic are offered. At the front the CCB (Carbon Ceramic Brakes) discs measure 380mm in diameter and at the rear 356mm. They deliver much improved performance at a reduced weight. In total, the CCB braking system is lighter in weight that, at the wheel, improves driving dynamics and comfort.

The interior and trim

With the Gallardo LP560-4 Lamborghini provides its customers with a generous and sporty standard equipment package. Direct from the production line, a customer will find included in his vehicle passenger and lateral air-bags; a two-zone air-conditioning system with sun regulation; The Lamborghini Multimedia System including an USB connector; and sports seats with an electronically operated backrest. In addition to this, the interior trim includes fine leather and Bi-Xenon headlights with LED daytime running light. The car is supplied with new Apollo wheels as standard.

A large variety of options increases the interior comfort of the vehicle, including a navigation system and a module for TV reception, a hands-free Bluetooth® phone set, an anti-theft device and a rearview camera. A further option is the lifting system control of the front of the vehicle which, at the touch of a button, is raised to enable driving over obstacles. The new polished cross wheel rims ‘Cordelia’ or the black Y-rims ‘Callisto’ complete the options range. Finally, the engine hood made from glass creates a showcase for the heart of the Gallardo LP560-4..

The possibilities and different combinations available in the Individualisation Program Ad Personam are almost inexhaustible. Behind this program stands the philosophy that a super sports car of this nature should, after all, reflect the personality of its owner by enabling him to completely indulge his expectations and wishes. As a consequence, extreme exclusivity is the trademark of Lamborghini’s individualisation program. “Think the Impossible” states the motto.

Ad Personam offers a host of options in order that a customer may give the car an imprint of his own style with respect to the interior trim and exterior. A new highlight in the program are the following three exclusive matt colours: Nero Nemesis (matt black), Bianco Canopus (matt white), Marrone Apus (matt brown). The new matt colours underline the clearly defined and purist precision of the Lamborghini design.

Technical dataFrame & BodyFrame: Structural aluminium spaceframe, based on aluminium extruded parts welded to aluminium casted joint elements.
Body: Aluminium with thermoplastic ″hang on″ parts
Rear Spoiler: Electronically controlled
Mirrors: External mirror with electrical closing system
Suspension: Double wishbones front and rear suspension system, antiroll bar anti-dive and anti-squat
ESP 8.0: Full ESP System with ABS,ASR and ABD

Airbags

Front: Front Dual Stage driver and passenger airbags, side Head-thorax airbags

Wheels/Tyres

Tyres (Front rear): Pirelli Pzero 235/35 ZR 19 – 295/30 ZR 19
Wheels (front-rear): Aluminium alloy, 8.5″ x 019″- 11″x 019″
Steering: Power- assisted rack and pinion
Kerb-to-kerb turning circle: 11,50 m

Brakes

Steel brakes: Power vacuum, aluminium alloy callipers :8 cylinder front callipers and 4 cylinder rear callipers; Ventilated discs (front-rear) ø 365 x 34mm front –ø 356 x 32 mm rear
CCB brakes: Power vacuum, aluminium alloy callipers :6 cylinder front callipers and 4 cylinder rear callipers; Ventilated discs (front-rear) ø 380 x 38mm front –ø 356 x 32 mm rear

EngineType: 10 cylinders V90°, DOHC 4 valves, common-pin crankshaft
Displacement: 5204 cc
Compression ratio: 12,5 : 1
Maximum power: 412 kW (560 ps) at 8000 rpm
Maximum torque: 540 Nm 6500 rpm
Engine management system: Bosch MED 9
Cooling system: Engine and Gearbox radiator
Cooling system oil: Oil to Water cooler
Cooling system water: Two water radiators
Emission control system: Catalytic converters with lambda sensors
Lubrication system: Dry sump

Drivetrain

Type of transmission: Permanent 4-wheel drive with viscous traction system
Gearbox: 6 Speed + reverse, A optional, robotized sequential e-gear system with actuation by paddles on the steering column
Clutch: Double plate ø 215 mm
Rear Differential: 45% limited slip
Front Differential: Slip limitation by ABD function

Performance

Top speed: 325 km/h
Acceleration (0-100 km/h): 3,7 sec.
Acceleration (0-200 km/h): 11,8 sec.

Dimensions

Wheelbase: 2560 mm
Overall length: 4345 mm
Overall width: 1900 mm
Overall height: 1165 mm
Track (front– rear): 1632 mm – 1597 mm
Kerb Weight: 1500
Weight distribution (front-rear): Front 43% – rear 57%

Capacities

Engine oil: 10 litres
Fuel tank: 90 litres
Engine coolant: 20 litres

Consumption with E-Gear

Urban: 21 L/100 km
Extra urban: 10 L/100 km
Combined: 14 L/100 km
Emission: Euro 4
CO2: 327 g/km

Consumption with manual transmission

Urban: 22 L/100 km
Extra urban: 10 L/100 km
Combined: 14,7 L/100 km
Emission: Euro 4
CO2: 351 g/km

Links:

• All Lamborghini Models Photos and Wallpapers at CARxy.com: http://www.carxy.com/lamborghini/

• Lamborghini Car Logo (EPS, Ai, CDR) for Graphics Designers at 2WF.org: http://www.2wf.org/l-logos/lamborghini.html

The original word for Japanese archery was kyujutsu (bow technique) which encompassed the skills and techniques of the warrior archer. Some of the ancient schools, known as ryu, survive today, along with the  ancient ceremonies and games, but the days where the Japanese bow was used as a weapon are long past. Modern kyudo is practiced primarily as a method of physical, moral, and spiritual development.

Kyūdō (弓道:きゅうどう, Kyūdō), literally meaning “way of the bow”, is the Japanese art of archery. It is a modern Japanese martial art (gendai budō). It is estimated that there are approximately half a million practitioners of kyūdō today. Kyūdō is a rare sport in the sense that it is not dependent on age or sex. If the practitioner is dedicated, male or female, they can learn at any age. It’s never too early or too late to learn Kyūdō. Although one could learn Kyūdō at any point in their life, it can take a lifetime to perfect.

No one knows exactly when the term kyudo came into being but it was not until the late nineteenth century when practice centered almost exclusively around individual practice that the term gained general acceptance. The essence of modern kyudo is said to be synonymous with the pursuit of truth, goodness, and beauty.

Truth in kyudo is manifested in shooting that is pure and right-minded, where the three elements of attitude, movement, and technique unite in a state of perfect harmony. A true shot in kyudo is not just one that hits the center of the target, but one where the arrow can be said to exist in the target before its release.

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Goodness encompasses such qualities as courtesy, compassion, morality, and non-aggression. In kyudo, goodness is shown by displaying proper attitude and behavior in all situations. A good kyudo archer is a person who maintains his or her composure and grace even in times of great stress or conflict.

Beauty both enhances life and stimulates the spirit. In kyudo, truth and goodness, themselves, are considered beautiful. Beauty can also be found in the exquisite grace and artistry of the Japanese bow and the elegance of the traditional archer’s attire. It is also present in the refined etiquette that surrounds the kyudo ceremony. Etiquette, which is simply common courtesy and respect for others, is an essential element of kyudo  practice.

Much has been written about the philosophical connections of kyudo. Perhaps most known is the book Zen in the Art of Archery by Eugen Herrigel. In his book Mr. Herrigel sets forth his experiences with kyudo in the 1930’s. It was a beautifully written account that has been translated into many languages, giving people worldwide their first glimpse of the art. Unfortunately, the book was very one-sided in its description of kyudo as a Zen art and is responsible for a lot of the current misconception surrounding the practice of kyudo as a religious activity.

While kyudo is not a religion it has been influenced by two schools of Eastern philosophy: The previously mentioned Zen, a form of Buddhism imported from China, and Shintoism, the indigenous faith of Japan. Of the two, the influence of Shintoism is much older. Ritualistic use of the bow and arrows have been a part of Shintoism for over two thousand years. Much of the kyudo ceremony, the attire worn by the archers, and the ritual respect shown for the equipment and shooting place are derived from ancient Shinto practice.

The influence of Zen, on the other hand, is more recent, dating back to the Kamakura Period (1185-1333) when the warrior archers adopted Zen as their preferred method of moral training. Zen’s influence on kyudo became even greater in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries when Japan, as a whole, experienced a period of civil peace.

During that time the practice of kyudo took on a definite philosophical leaning. This is  the period when sayings like “one shot, one life” and “shooting should be like flowing water” were associated with the teaching of kyudo. Because of its long and varied past, modern Japanese archery will exhibit a wide variety of influences.

Today, at any given kyudojo (practice hall), one can find people practicing ancient kyujutsu, ceremonial court games, rituals with religious connections, and contests of skill. The key to understanding kyudo is to keep an open mind and realize that any style of kyudo you see or practice is but a small part of a greater whole, and that each style has its own history and philosophical underpinnings which make them all equally interesting and important.

Technique: All kyūdō archers hold the bow in their left hand and draw the string with their right, so that all archers face the higher position (kamiza) while shooting.

Unlike occidental archers (who, with some exceptions, draw the bow never further than the cheek bone), kyūdō archers draw the bow so that the drawing hand is held behind the ear. If done improperly, upon release the string may strike the archer’s ear or side of the face.

Resulting from the technique to release the shot, the bow will (for a practised archer) spin in the hand so that the string stops in front of the archer’s outer forearm. This action of “yugaeri” is a combination of technique and the natural working of the bow. It is unique to kyūdō.

Kyūdō technique is meticulously prescribed. The All Nippon Kyudo Federation (ANKF), the main governing body of kyūdō in Japan, has codified the hassetsu (or “eight stages of shooting”) in the Kyudo Kyohon (Kyudo Manual). The hassetsu consists of the following steps:

• Ashibumi, placing the footing. The archer steps on to the line from where arrows are fired (known as the shai) and turns to face the kamiza, so that the left side of his body faces the target. He then sights from the target to his feet and sets his feet apart so that the distance between them is equal to his yatsuka, approximately half his body height. A line drawn between the archer’s toes should pass through the target after the completion of the ashibumi.
• Dozukuri, forming the body. The archer verifies his balance and that his pelvis and the line between his shoulders are parallel to the line set up during ashibumi.
• Yugamae, readying the bow. Yugamae consists of three phases:

1. Torikake, gripping of the bowstring with the right hand.
2. Tenouchi, the left hand is positioned for shooting on the bow’s grip.
3. Monomi, the archer turns his head to gaze at the target.

• Uchiokoshi, raising the bow. The archer raises the bow above his head to prepare for the draw.
• Hikiwake, drawing apart. The archer starts bringing down the bow while spreading his arms, simultaneously pushing the bow with his left hand and drawing the string with the right, until the arrow is level with his eyebrows.
• Kai, the full draw. The archer continues the movement started in the previous phase, until he reaches full draw with the arrow placed slightly below his cheekbone. The arrow points along the line set up during ashibumi.
• Hanare, the release. The bowstring is released from the right hand.
• Zanshin, “the remaining body or mind” or “the continuation of the shot”. The archer remains in the position reached after hanare while returning from the state of concentration associated with the shot.

While other schools’ shooting also conforms to the hassetsu outlined above, the naming of some steps and some details of the execution of the shot may differ.

Rankings: Using a system which is common to modern budō (martial art) practices, most kyūdō schools periodically hold examinations, which, if the archer passes, results in the conveying of a grade, which can be kyū or dan level.

Traditional schools, however, often rank students as a recognition of attaining instructor status using the older menkyo (license) system of koryū budō.

While kyūdō’s kyū and dan levels are similar to those of other budō practices, colored belts or similar external symbols of one’s level are not worn by kyūdō practitioners.

List of fictional kyūdō practitioners:

• The character Shado first introduced in the DC Comics prestige format limited series Green Arrow The Longbow Hunters is a practitioner of kyūdō.
• The character Kikyou from the anime InuYasha is a practitioner of kyūdō.
• The characters Shizuka Dômeki and Haruka Dômeki from the manga/anime xxxHolic are practitioners of kyūdō.
• The character Naoji from the anime and GBA game Meine Liebe is a practitioner of kyūdō.
• The character Yukito Tsukishiro from the anime Cardcaptor Sakura is a practitioner of kyūdō, .
• The character Arjuna from the anime Earth Girl Arjuna is a practitioner of kyūdō.
• The character Chikane Himemiya from the anime Kannazuki no Miko is a practitioner of kyūdō.
• The character Yoko Tsuno from the comic books by French Roger Leloup is practitioner of Kyūdō.
• The character Suoh Takamura from the manga Clamp School Detectives is a practitioner of kyūdō.
• The three-volume Shonen-Ai manga Rin! by Satoru Kannagi & Yukine Honami features characters who are all practitioners of kyūdō, and many of the events are set in a Kyūdō Dōjō or in tournaments.

Links:

• The Kyudo Portal at the Martial Arts Database: http://www.mardb.com/kyudo/

Throughout the game, a player must avoid a sweep, trip, kick, or head butt that may knock him or her on the floor. Less frequently-used techniques include elbow-strikes, slaps, punches, and body-throws. Capoeira has evolved from one main form, now referred to as “Capoeira Angola”, into two other forms known as “Capoeira Regional”, and the ever-evolving “Capoeira Contemporânea”.

Capoeira is an energetic, often acrobatic, dance-like style of martial art. Capoeira was first practiced by African slaves who were taken to work in Brazil. Capoeira is primarily based around kicking, as a slave’s hands were normally manacled.

In Capoeira, many movements are carried out while in a handstand position, often resembling modern Breakdance moves. There are a variety of forms of Capoeira, including where two people “play” fight each other inside a circle formed by spectators, while other members of the group play instruments and sing. The music dictates the speed or tempo of the movements.

History: From the 16th to the 19th centuries, Portugal shipped slaves into South America from western Africa. Brazil was one of the many American destinations for African captives, with 42% of all enslaved peoples shipped across the Atlantic. Most commonly sold into Brazil were Akan, Igbo, Yoruba, Dahomean, Muslim Guineans, Hausa, and Bantu (among them Kongos, Kimbundas, and Kasanjes) from Angola, Congo and Mozambique.

These Africans brought their cultural traditions and religions with them to the New World. One theory suggests that capoeira originated from a fern courtship dance in Angola used by suitors of young women, however, this is only one of many disputed theories. There is contention as to whether the game arrived with enslaved Africans or whether Africans refined a preexisting Brazilian game. One catalyst for capoeira was the homogenization of African people under the oppression of slavery. Capoeira emerged as a way to resist oppression, secretly practice art, transmit culture, and lift spirits.

Most Brazilian scholars have argued that Capoeira emerged as a way to conceal the fact that slaves were practicing to fight (against their owners), concealing it with a seemingly happy dance routine. This explains why today’s Capoeira appears to be a mix of both fighting techniques and flowing artful dance.

Batuque and Maculelê are other fight-dances also developed by African-descended populations that are closely connected to Capoeira. There are also engravings and writings that describe a now-lost fighting dance in Cuba, the baile del maní, with two Bantu men moving to the yuka drums.

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After slavery was abolished in 1888, the freed people often moved to the cities of Brazil. With employment scarce, many joined or formed criminal gangs. They continued to practice Capoeira, which in time became associated with anti-government and criminal activities.

As a result, Capoeira was outlawed in Brazil in 1890, and the punishment for practicing it was extreme (practitioners would have the tendons on the backs of their feet cut), and the police were vicious in their attempt to stamp out the art.

Capoeira continued to be practiced, but it moved further underground. Rodas were often held in areas with plenty of escape routes, and a special rhythm called cavalaria was added to the music to warn players that the police were coming. Capoeira practitioners (capoeiristas) also adopted apelidos or nicknames to make it more difficult for police to discover their true identities. To this day, when a person is baptized into Capoeira at the batizado ceremony, they may be given an apelido. (Legal persecution of the art faded eventually.)

Mestre Bimba made a major contribution to the preservation of the art by opening the first academy for instruction in Capoeira. This was a significant development because it eventually led to the legalization of the art in Brazil, and allowed Capoeira to gain popularity at a time when the art could possibly have died out. A notable example of the influence of Mestre Bimba’s system of formal instruction took place in 1937, when he was invited to perform with his students at an event at which Getulio Vargas (the president of Brazil at that time) was present.

Vargas was so impressed with the discipline and devotion of Mestre Bimba’s students he declared Capoeira the national sport of Brazil. Mestre Bimba also had a major impact on the practice and method of instruction of the art, and introduced changes that affect the practice of the art to this day. Because of these changes Mestre Bimba remains a controversial figure. Prior to the legalization of the art, the public associated the art of Capoeira with the poor underclass, criminal activity, and negative stereotypical elements of the Afro-Brazilian population.

In order to alter the image of the art in the eye of the public, Mestre Bimba removed many of the rituals and traditions of the art of Capoeira for practice in his academy. Because of the negative stereotypes associated with Capoeira, he called his variant of the form Uma Luta Regional de Bahia (A regional fight from Bahia).

Mestre Bimba’s Capoeira is now called Capoeira Regional, and subsequently many modern forms of Capoeira not directly derived from Bimba’s teaching are also called Regional. Mestre Bimba’s Capoeira continued to gain popularity, but eventually an effort was made to prevent the art from losing its traditions and rituals.

In 1942, Mestre Pastinha opened the first formal academy for instruction in the traditional form of the art, known as Capoeira Angola. Mestre Pastinha’s efforts prevented Capoeira Angola from being lost as newer, modernized forms of the art gained popularity.

This era was a milestone of a dramatic change in the mode of instruction of the art of Capoeira. Previously, Capoeira was passed on in secret, usually from a relative such as one’s father or uncle, or in a small group setting where several young people in a particular community would receive guidance from elder practitioners from that community. During this era, the academy system became the predominant form of participation in the art. Presently, there are capoeira academies on almost every continent of the world.

Another significant change that occurred due to the proliferation of Capoeira ’schools’ is the participation of middle and upper class members of the population. Presently, some Mestres participate in seminars where they discuss the need to make the art available to poor blacks who can not afford the cost of training in an academy. This is an issue of concern to practitioners who recognize the importance of making the art available to people who come from the culture that invented the art in the first place.

After the sport was brought to the United States, the only school that ever incorporated it with academic subjects as an in-school class was created, and is known as Hoggetowne Middle School, located in Gainesville, Florida.

Etymology: The derivation of the word “Capoeira” is under dispute, as there are several possibilities:

• The Portuguese word “Capoeira” derives from the word capão, which translates as capon, a castrated rooster. The sport’s name may originate from this word since its moves resemble those of a rooster in a fight.

A Capoeira “fight” is one that implies that the purpose is a pretend cockfight, whereby men participate to show off their skills rather than fighting to actually kill or harm an opponent. Though this gymnastic almost dance-like display can appear to be a fight, participants are expected to restrain themselves from inflicting grievous harm upon one another.

Hence, all participants are reminded by the word Capoeira, that the intent of the “fight” should remain one with the restraint of the show-off, yet castrated, rooster called Capão.

These showy cock like fights are mock fights of skill between performing “capão” in the mock cockfight pen known as the “Capoceira”. Capoeira is an extreme display of a cockfight-like competition of one-up-man-ship between show-off cocky “roosters” absent deadly intent.

“Capoeira” has several meanings, including any kind of pen where poultry is kept, a fowl similar to a partridge, and a basket worn on the head by soldiers defending a stronghold. “Capoeira” is also what people used to call a black inlander who mugged travelers.

• Afro-Brazilian scholar Carlos Eugenio has suggested that the sport took its name from a large round basket called a capa commonly worn on the head by urban slaves selling wares.
• The word could derive from two Tupi-Guarani words, kaá (leaf, plant) and puéra (past aspect marker), which literally means “formerly a forest”, referring to an area of forest that had been cleared by burning or cutting down. In such places a thick, low secondary vegetation would grow, making it a good place for those who escaped slavery and bandits to hide. According to this etymology, the term was first used as a synonym of outlaw, especially the type of outlaws that would evade justice by escaping to the jungles, to be only later applied to the fighting art most of them knew.
• Kongo scholar K. Kia Bunseki Fu-Kiau has posited that “capoeira” could be derived from the Kikongo word kipura, a term used to describe a rooster’s movements in a fight and meaning to flutter, flit from place to place, struggle, fight, or flog.

Music: Music is integral to capoeira. It sets the tempo and style of game that is to be played within the roda. The music is composed of instruments and song. The tempos differ from very slow (Angola) to very fast (São Bento Regional).

Many of the songs are sung in a call and response format while others are in the form of a narrative. Capoeiristas sing about a wide variety of subjects. Some songs are about history or stories of famous capoeiristas. Other songs attempt to inspire players to play better.

Some songs are about what is going on within the roda. Sometimes the songs are about life, or love lost. Others are lighthearted or even silly things, sung just for fun. Capoeiristas change their playing style significantly as the songs or rhythm from the berimbau commands. In this manner, it is truly the music that drives capoeira.

There are three basic kinds of songs in capoeira. A ladainha (litany) is a narrative solo usually sung at the beginning of a roda, often by the Mestre (Master). These ladainhas will often be famous songs previously written by a Mestre, or they may be improvised on the spot. A ladainha is usually followed by a chula or louvação, following a call and response pattern that usually thanks God and one’s teacher, among other things. Each call is usually repeated word-for-word by the responders.

The ladainha and chula are often omitted in regional games. Finally, corridos are songs that are sung while a game is being played, again following the call and response pattern. The responses to each call do not simply repeat what was said, however, but change depending on the song.

The instruments are played in a row called the bateria. Three instruments are berimbaus, which look like an archer’s bow using a steel string and a gourd for resonance. It is played by striking the string with a stick, and the pitch is regulated by a stone. Legend has it that, in the old times, knives or other sharp objects were attached to the top of the berimbau for protection and in case a large fight broke out.

These three bows are the Berra boi (also called the bass or Gunga), Medio, Viola, and lead the rhythm. Other instruments in the bateria are: two pandeiros (tambourines), a Reco-Reco (rasp), and an Agogo (double gong bell).

The Atabaque (conga-like drum), a common feature in most capoeira baterias, is considered an optional instrument, and is not required for a full bateria in some groups.

The capoeira roda: The “roda” is the circle of people within which capoeira is played. People who make up the roda’s circular shape clap and sing along to the music being played for the two partners engaged in a capoeira “game” (“jogo”). In some capoeira schools an individual in the audience can “buy in” to engage one of the two players and begin another game.

The minimum roda size is usually a circle of about 3 metres (10 feet) in diameter. They are often larger, up to 10 metres in diameter (30 feet). The rhythm being played on the berimbau sets the pace of the game being played in the roda. Slow music limits the game to slow yet complex ground moves and handstands.

Hits usually aren’t made but feigned or just shown, although this depends directly on the rhythm played by the berimbaus. In some rhythms (e.g., Benguela) strikes are generally shown but not finished while in others (e.g., São Bentro Grande da Regional) the players have more freedom to strike each other. Slow games are often seen as finesse games, less impressive for the casual viewer. Faster music allows for more circular momentum which is key to gaining “big air” in the roda. Note, however, that it is the specific toque played on the berimbau, regardless of its speed, which dictates the type of game to be played.

For the participants, the roda is a microcosm of life and the world around them. Most often in the roda, the capoeirista’s greatest opponent is himself. Philosophy plays a large part in capoeira and the best teachers strive to teach Respeito (Respect), Responsabilidade (Responsibility), Segurança (Safety Security), Malicia (Cleverness Street-smarts), and Liberdade (Liberty Freedom).

Modern capoeira is often criticized by more traditional practitioners of capoeira as being in the process of losing its “playfulness” and dialogue, in the sense that many capoeiristas tend to focus more on impressive acrobatics or the martial elements than the playful interaction with the other player in the roda. Dominance in the roda is as much psychological and artistic as it is a question of who winds up tumbling to the floor.

Capoeira is uniquely social. Networking with other groups and students from other teachers can teach a capoeirista more about the art and improve their skills.

The Jogo: Capoeira does not focus on injuring the opponent. Rather, it emphasizes skill. Capoeiristas often prefer to show the movement without completing it, enforcing their superiority in the roda. If an opponent cannot dodge a slow attack, there is no reason to use a faster one. Each attack that comes in gives players a chance to practice an evasive technique.

Ginga: The ginga (literally: rocking back and forth; to swing) is the fundamental movement in capoeira. Capoeira Angola and capoeira regional have distinctive forms of ginga. Both are accomplished by maintaining both feet approximately shoulder-width apart and then moving one foot backwards and then back to the base, describing a triangular ’step’ on the ground. This movement is done to prepare the body for other movements.

The rest of the body is also involved in the ginga: coordination of the arms (in such a way as to prevent the body from being kicked), torso (many core muscles may be engaged depending on the player’s style), and the leaning of the body (forward and back in relation to the position of the feet; the body leans back to avoid kicks, and forward to create opportunities to show attacks). The overall movement should match the rhythm being played by the bateria.

Attacks: Capoeira primarily attacks with kicks, sweeps, and head strikes. Some schools teach punches and hand strikes, but they are not as common. Some scholars have speculated that this is because the art was originally developed by handcuffed slaves fighting against their guards but this is highly unlikely as slaves were just as often restrained by the feet and/or neck. Another, more probable explanation for the primary use of feet is the common West African belief that hands are for creation and feet for destruction.

Elbow strikes are commonly used in place of hand strikes. “Cabeçada” or Headbutts are common- as they are in many of the fighting arts of the African Diaspora. Knee strikes are sometimes seen. Capoeira also uses acrobatic and athletic movements to maneuver around the opponent. Cartwheels called “aú” (a very common acrobatic movement), handstands (bananeira), headspins (pião de cabeça), hand-spins (pião de mão), hand-springs (gato), sitting movements, turns, jumps, flips (mortal), and large dodges are all very common in capoeira though vary greatly depending on the form and rhythm. Fakes and feints are also an extremely important element in capoeira games and the setting of “traps” or illusory movements are very common.

Defenses: Capoeira defenses consists of evasive moves and rolls. A series of ducks called esquivas, which literally means “escape”, are also staple of a capoeiristas’ defensive vocabulary. There are typically different esquivas for every step of the Ginga, depending on the direction of the kick and intention of the defender.

A common defense is the rolê, which is a rolling move that combines a duck and a low movement. This move allows the defensive player to quickly evade an attack and position themselves around the aggressor in order to lay up for an attack. It is this combination of attacks and defense which gives a game of capoeira its perceived ‘fluidity’ and choreography.

Other evasive moves such as rasteira, vingativa, tesoura de mão or queda allow the capoeirista to move away or dangerously close in an attempt to trip up the aggressor in the briefest moment of vulnerability (usually in a mid-kick.)

Combinations: There are also styles of moves that combine both elements of attack and defense. An example is the au batido. The move begins as an evasive cartwheel which then turns into a blocking/kick, either as a reflexive response to a blocking move from the opposing player or when an opportunity to do so presents itself, e.g., at an opponent’s drop of guard. Two kicks called meia lua de compasso and armada are usually combined to create a double spinning kick.

Chamada: The Chamada is a ritual that takes place within the game of Capoeira Angola. Chamada means ‘call’, and consists of one player ‘calling’ their opponent to participate in the ritual. There is an understood dialogue of gestures of the body that are used to call the opponent, and to signal the end of the ritual.

The ritual consists of one player signalling, or calling the opponent, who then approaches the player and meets the player to walk side by side within the roda. The player who initiated the ritual then decides when to signal an end to the ritual, whereby the two players return to normal play.

The critical points of the chamada occur during the approach, and the chamada is considered a ‘life lesson’, communicating the fact that the approach is a dangerous situation. Approaching people, animals, or life situations is always a critical moment when one must be aware of the danger of the situation. The purpose of the chamada is to communicate this lesson, and to enhance the awareness of people participating in the ritual.

During the ritual, after the opposing player has appropriately approached the caller of the chamada, the players walk side by side inside the circle in which the game is played. This is another critical situation, because both players are now very vulnerable due to the close proximity and potential for surprise attack.

Experienced practitioners and masters of the art will sometimes test a student’s awareness by suggesting strikes, head-butts, or trips during a chamada to demonstrate when the student left themselves open to attack. The end of a chamada is called by the player that initiated the ritual, and consists of a gesture inviting the player to return to normal play. This is another critical moment when both players are vulnerable to surprise attack.

The chamada can result in a highly developed sense of awareness and helps practitioners learn the subtleties of anticipating another person’s intentions. The chamada can be very simple, consisting solely of the basic elements, or the ritual can be quite elaborate including a competitive dialogue of trickery, or even theatric embellishments.

Olta ao mundo: Volta ao mundo means ‘around the world’. The volta ao mundo takes place after an exchange of movements has reached a conclusion, or after there has been a disruption in the harmony of the game. In either of these situations, one player will begin walking around the perimeter of the circle, and the other player will join the ‘around the world’ before returning to the normal game.

Malandragem: As students master the basic moves, their game naturally acquires a more cunning slant as they begin to perfect the art of trickery, or malandragem. This involves a lot of improvisation and modifications of basic moves into a flurry of feints and fakes to trick the opponent into responding wrongly.

These attempts can be blatant or subtle at discretion of the players. Effective malandragem lies in the development of sharp observation skills and a keen innate ability to anticipate the moves of the opponent and prepare an appropriate response. Some capoeiristas take this aspect of the art to heights akin to the guile of theatrics and drama. Games displaying elaborate performances and even staging skits reenacting historic cultural aspects of capoeira are commonly demonstrated amongst the most learned of the arts.

Styles of capoeira: Capoeira has two main classifications: traditional and modern. Angola refers to the traditional form of the game. This is the oldest form, approximately 500 years old, with roots in African traditions that are even older, and is the root form from which all other forms of capoeira are based. Modern forms of capoeira can be classified as Regional and Contemporanea.

Capoeira Angola: Capoeira Angola is considered to be the mother form of capoeira and is often characterized by deeply held traditions, sneakier movements and with the players playing their games in closer proximity to each other than in regional or contemporanea. Capoeira Angola is often mis-characterized as being slower and lower to the ground than other major forms of capoeira. However, this is a common misperception as some of the fastest and intriguing games can be found in Capoeira Angola rodas.

The father of the best known modern Capoeira Angola schools is considered to be Mestre Pastinha who lived in Salvador, Bahia. Today, most of the capoeira Angola media that is accessible in the United States comes from mestres in Pastinha’s lineage. He was not the only Capoeira Angola mestre. However, he is the best known mestre who helped bring more traditional Capoeira philosophy and movements into the modern setting of an academy.

Capoeira Regional: Regional is a newer form of Capoeira. Regional was developed by Mestre Bimba to make capoeira more mainstream and accessible to the public, and less associated with the criminal elements of Brazil. The regional style is most often composed of fast and athletic play.

Later, so called modern regional came to be (see the next section about capoeira Contemporânea). Developed by other people from Bimba’s regional, this type of game is characterized by high jumps, acrobatics, and spinning kicks. This regional should not be confused with the original style created by Mestre Bimba.

Regional ranks capoeiristas (capoeira players) by ability, denoting different skill with the use of a corda (colored rope, also known as cordel or cordão) worn as a belt. Angola does not use such a formal system of ranking, relying instead upon the discretion of a student’s mestre. In both forms, though, recognition of advanced skill comes only after many years of constant practice.

Capoeira Contemporânea: Contemporânea is a term for groups that train multiple styles of capoeira simultaneously. Very often a students of Capoeira Contemporânea train elements of Regional and Angola as well as newer movements that would not fall under either of those styles.

This is controversial because many practitioners argue that Angola must be practiced alone, or that regional can only be practiced alone for the student to truly understand the form of the game. Other practitioners argue that a capoeirista should have a working knowledge of traditional and modern capoeira, and encourage training both forms simultaneously. This is an issue of great disagreement amongst capoeiristas.

The label contemporânea also applies to many groups who do not trace their lineage through Mestre Bimba or Mestre Pastinha and do not strongly associate with either tradition.

In recent years, the various philosophies of modern capoeira have been expressed by the formation of schools, particularly in North America, which focus on, and continue to develop their specific form of the modern art. This has become a defining characteristic of many schools, to the point that a seasoned student can sometimes tell what school a person trains from, based solely on the way they play the game. Some schools teach a blended version of the many different styles. Traditionally, rodas in these schools will begin with a period of Angola, in which the school’s mestre, or an advanced student, will sing a ladainha, (a long, melancholy song, often heard at the start of an Angola game). After some time, the game will eventually increase in tempo, until, at the mestre’s signal, the toque of the berimbaus changes to that of traditional Regional.

Each game, Regional and Angola stresses different strengths and abilities. Regional emphasizes speed and quick reflexes, whereas Angola underscores a great deal of thought given to each move, almost like a game of chess. Schools that teach a blend of these try to offer this mix as a way of using the strengths of both games to influence a player.

Links:

• The Capoeira Portal at the Martial Arts Database: http://www.mardb.com/capoeira/

On 28 February 2005, at 12:08 hrs local time, in Nardò, Italy, the CCR broke the record for the fastest road legal car in the world, having attained 388.87 km/h (242.91 mph), breaking the record previously held by the McLaren F1. The record was held until September 2005 when the long awaited Bugatti Veyron broke the record again at 407.5 km/h (253 mph), proven by Car and Driver and BBC Top Gear.

However, Bugatti’s record was set on Volkswagen’s own test-track Ehra-Lessien, which features a 9 km (5.6 mi) long straight. Since the Nardò Ring is a circular 12.5 km (just under 7.8 miles) long track, the records are not comparable until Bugatti tests the Veyron on Nardò or allows Koenigsegg to test on Ehra-Lessien.

In May 2003, on the San Francisco to Miami Gumball 3000 Rally, the first CCR in the United States received the biggest speeding ticket (in terms of speed) in the world; 242 mph (389 km/h) in a 75 mph (121 km/h) zone somewhere in west Texas.

The Koenigsegg CCX is a mid-engined roadster from Swedish car manufacturer Koenigsegg, to replace the Koenigsegg CCR.

CCX is an abbreviation for Competition Coupe X, the X commemorating the 10th anniversary, being the Roman numeral for ten, of the completion and test drive of the first CC vehicle in 1996.

The CCX is intended to be suitable for the United States market and thus engineered to comply with US regulations. A base model CCX costs approximately US$540,000 (€370,000) but with all optional extras the car costs US$610,000 (€415,000).

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The CCX was first unveiled on February 28, 2006 at the 2006 Geneva Motor Show although its existence was announced earlier. The CCX is also available as the CCXR, the difference being that CCXR’s engine is tuned to run on biofuel. The different fuel and tune allows the CCXR to produce 25% more power than the CCX.

It should be noted that the official specs or the CCX and CCXR (as well as the CCR) have been greatly understated by as much as 200 bhp this also means that the acceleration can be as much as 0.5 seconds faster than stated. this has been done on purpose due to trade tariffs and marketing standards in different countries.

Development: Koenigsegg began the CCX project with the aim of entering the world market, though particularly the United States car market. Development engineer Magnus Jaasund said “We wanted to go into the world market, but we couldn’t do it with the old car.” To sell cars to the North American market many alterations were made to the design of the CCR; the previously used Ford Modular engine was replaced by a Koenigsegg engine designed to run on 91 octane fuel, readily available in the United States, and to meet the Californian emission standards.

The front bumper of the CCX is designed to be safer in low speed collisions than previous Koenigseggs and the whole body is 3.46 in (88 millimeters) longer to comply with the United States’ rear impact regulations. Additionally the CCX can display United States or European number plates.

The CCX is 1.61 in (41 millimeters) taller than the CCR and, combined with the carbon fiber reinforced plastic sports seats by Sparco, the CCX allows for 1.97 in (50 millimeters) of extra headroom that Autoweek reviewer Mark Vaughn hypothesises is “to accommodate U.S. NBA stars.” The electronic control unit has also received an upgrade over the CCR meaning that the CCX is without physical fuses and it is lighter than the previous system.

Performance: The CCX can accelerate from stationary to 100 km/h (62 mph) in 3.2 seconds and 100 miles per hour (160 km/h) in 7.7 seconds. It can complete a standing quarter mile in 9.9 seconds with an end speed of 146 miles per hour (235 km/h). According to Koenigsegg it has a top speed of 245 miles per hour (395 km/h), but it has not officially been tested on a long enough straight to confirm its maximum speed. The CCX has a turning circle of 36 ft 1.1 in (11 meters) and can turn at 1.3 lateral gs (13 m/s²).

Engine: While the previous Koenigseggs were powered by a V8 Ford Modular engine sourced from the U.S., the engine of the CCX was designed by Koenigsegg based on the Ford Modular engine architecture, and assembled for them by Grainger & Worrall, a British company that produces drivetrain components for Formula One cars.

The engine is a 4.7 liter (4712 cc, 287 cu in) V8, with dual overhead camshafts and 4 valves per cylinder. The engine block is made of 356 Aluminium that has undergone a T7 heat treatment, a form of accelerated precipitation strengthening. The aluminium alloy is stronger than the previous engine and allows a thinner, thus lighter, engine block with higher pressures in the cylinders.

The engine is boosted by two centrifugal superchargers that increase the compression to 17.5 psi (120 kPa) with an 8.2:1 compression ratio. The engine produces 806 bhp (601 kW) at 6900 rpm and 678 lbf·ft (920 newton meters) of torque at 5700 rpm on 91 octane (U.S. rating) gasoline. The engine is lubricated with a dry sump system with a separate oil pump, the pistons are cooled by oil sprayed onto them and the oil itself has an external cooler. The CCX engine burns 14 mpg–U.S. / 17 mpg–imp (17 Liters per 100 kilometers).

Exterior: The Koenigsegg CCX is a two-door targa top and the removable roof can be stored under the front trunk meaning that, unlike many of its competitors, it can be changed at any location, not only one where the roof can be safely left. The body, made of pre-impregnated carbon fibre and Kevlar, is 169 in (4293 millimeters) long, 78.6 in (1996 millimeters) wide and 44.1 in (1120 millimeters) tall with a ground clearance of 3.9 in (100 millimeters).

As with all previous Koenigseggs the “dihedral synchro-helix” actuation doors rotate forward and upwards similar to scissor doors though the Koenigsegg design avoids the problem of the open door obscuring the passenger’s entry or exit.

The car has a frontal area of 20.096 sq ft (1.867 square metres) but a drag coefficient of just 0.3. It also has a flat underside with venturi tunnels at the rear and an optional carbon rear spoiler to improve aerodynamics. Between the 2 speedster humps (humps behind the seats) is a vortex generator used as a ram-air intake that allows higher pressure in the air box without a roof scoop that would increase the frontal area. At 125 mph (200 kilometres per hour) there is 132 lbf (60 kilograms) of downforce over the front axle and 143 lbf (65 kilograms) over the rear.

Transmission: The CCX has a six speed manual gearbox made for Koenigsegg by Cima with a twin plate clutch of diameter 8.46 in (215 millimeters) as default but a sequential manual transmission option is available. The power is fed to the wheels through a torque sensitive, limited slip differential. The option to select gear ratios is available, but the default ratios of the 2007 CCX are in the table.

Wheels and brakes: The standard CCX wheels are Koenigsegg’s magnesium alloy wheels, though the option to upgrade to carbon/magnesium wheels which each weigh 6.6 lb (3 kg) less than the standard wheels is available. The front wheels have a diameter of 19 in (480 millimeters) and the rear, 20 in (510 millimeters).

Each of the wheels is attached by center locking wheel nuts. The car comes with Michelin Pilot Sport 2 unidirectional tires with asymmetric tread. The front tires have codes of 255/35 Y19 and the rear 335/30 Y20.

The front and rear cast iron disc brakes are 14 in (362 millimeters) across with 1.25 in (32 millimeters) of contact at any point and have 6 piston calipers. The brakes can be upgraded to carbon ceramic brakes which weigh 4.4 lb (2 kilograms) less per wheel, a diameter of 15 in (380 millimeters) with 1.34 in (34 millimeters) of contact and eight piston brake calipers.

Top Gear: The Koenigsegg CCX was the fastest car to complete a lap of the BBC Top Gear circuit for 18 months, in a time of 1 minute 17.6 seconds. It originally went around the course in 1:20.4, but was then fitted with a non-standard rear spoiler to provide downforce, after The Stig spun the original version off the track.

The Stig purportedly recommended this modification, correctly predicting that the car would then be the fastest ever round Top Gear’s track. Koenigsegg themselves state that the improvement was due to adjustments other than the spoiler (eg. changes to the adjustable chassis and suspension settings).

The Koenigsegg CCX was passed by the Caparo T1 on the November 11, 2007 show, but Clarkson took it off the board, saying “You know the rules, James.

If a car can’t go over a sleeping policeman, it can’t go on that board.” This refers to Top Gear’s rule that any car on the board must be able to go over a normal speed bump, something the Caparo would be unable to do because of its low nose.

The Caparo was then taken off, and the Koensigsegg CCX remained the fastest road legal car for the next month until it was beaten by the Ascari A10 with a time of 1:17.3

CCXR: The Koenigsegg CCXR is an “environmentally-friendly” version CCX powered by essentially the same twin-supercharged V8 engine but converted to use E85 ethanol fuel. The engine tune in the CCXR is more powerful than that of the CCX, putting out 1018 bhp (760 kW) at 7200 rpm and 781.8 ft·lb (1060 N·m) of torque at 6100 rpm, 25% more power than the CCX, also making it the second most powerful production car in the world, behind the SSC Ultimate Aero TT.

Christian von Koenigsegg said that “Our engineers couldn’t quite believe the figures when we tested the car”. The increased power is a result of the cooling properties of ethanol in the engine’s combustion chambers allowing for a higher pressure in the cylinder and the biofuel having a higher octane rating of 113 RON compared to 95 RON for gasoline in North America and 100 RON for gasoline in Europe, although the CCXR burns slightly more fuel than the CCX with 15 mpg (17L/100km).

The only changes to the engine are modified fuel injectors, upgraded fuel lines and piston rings and a higher boost setting on the superchargers. Koenigsegg stated that CCX owners will be able to have their cars converted to the same engine specification as the CCXR for approximately US$100,000 (€80,000) extra, although the CCX remains available for purchase as biofuel for the CCXR may not be available in some locations. Behind closed doors the CCXR has achieved 420 Kph (261 Mph) and will be attempting to officially set the record sometime in 2008

Links:

• Koenigsegg 2008 Cars Photos and Wallpapers: http://www.carxy.com/koenigsegg/
• Koenigsegg Logo (EPS, AI, CDR) for Graphics Designers at 2WF.org Free Logos and Trademarks: http://www.2wf.org/k-logos/koenigsegg.html

Founded by Enzo Ferrari in 1929 as Scuderia Ferrari, the company sponsored drivers and manufactured race cars before moving into production of street legal vehicles in 1947 as Ferrari S.p.A..

Throughout its history, the company has been noted for its continued participation in racing, especially in Formula One, where it has largely enjoyed great success, especially during the 1950s, 1960s, 1970s, late 1990s, and 2000s.

After years of financial struggles, Enzo Ferrari sold the company’s sports car division to the Fiat group in 1969 to ensure continued financial backing.

Enzo Ferrari retained control of the racing division until his death in 1988 at the age of 90. Earlier that year he had overseen the launch of the Ferrari F40; the last new Ferrari to be launched before his death.

Ferrari also has an internally managed merchandising line that licenses many products bearing the Ferrari brand, including eyewear, pens, pencils, perfume, clothing, high-tech bicycles, cell phones, and even laptop computers. Financial Times named Ferrari number one on its 2007 list of the 100 Best Workplaces in Europe.

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The first Ferrari road car was the 1947 125 S, powered by a 1.5 L V12 engine; Enzo Ferrari reluctantly built and sold his automobiles to fund the Scuderia. While his beautiful and fast cars quickly gained a reputation for excellence, Enzo maintained a famous distaste for his customers, most of whom he felt were buying his cars for the prestige and not the performance.

Ferrari road cars, noted for styling by design houses like Pininfarina, have long been one of the ultimate accessories for the wealthy. Other design houses that have done work for Ferrari over the years include Scaglietti, Bertone, Touring, Ghia, and Vignale.

In 2005, four universities were granted the opportunity to design the next vehicle line-up for Ferrari in a student competition named ‘Ferrari Concepts of the Myth’. Twenty winners were allowed to show off their concepts in a ¼ scale model and present their work to the board at Ferrari to allow for three winners to have the chance to work in the Ferrari design studio at Maranello.

As of 2007, the Fiat Group owns 85% of Ferrari, Mubadala 5%, and Enzo’s son Piero 10%. Fiat has shelved plans for an IPO because Fiat Auto has now returned to profitability, thus removing pressure from the group.

In late 2007, construction began on the theme park Ferrari World in the United Arab Emirates, the first theme park based on and utilizing the Ferrari brand.

Sports car racing: In 1949, Luigi Chinetti drove a 166M to Ferrari’s first win in motorsports, the 24 Hours of Le Mans. Ferrari went on to dominate the early years of the World Sportscar Championship which was created in 1953, winning the Manufacturers Championship seven out of its first nine years.

When the championship changed formats in 1962, Ferrari earned championships in at least one class until 1966, then again in 1968. Ferrari would win one final championship in 1972 before Enzo decided to leave sports car racing and concentrate Scuderia Ferrari solely on Formula One.

During Ferrari’s seasons of the World Sportscar Championship, they also gained more wins at the 24 Hours of Le Mans, with the factory team earning their first in 1954.

Another win would come in 1958 before they began a streak of five straight wins from 1960 to 1964. Luigi Chinetti’s North American Racing Team (NART) would take Ferrari’s final victory at Le Mans in 1965.

Although Scuderia Ferrari no longer participated in sports cars after 1973, they have occasionally built various successful sports cars for privateers. These include the 512BB/LM in the 1970s, the 333 SP which won the IMSA GT Championship in the 1990s, and currently the F430 GT2 and GT3 which are currently winning championships in their respective classes.

Formula One: The Scuderia joined the Formula One World Championship in the first year of its existence, 1950. José Froilán González gave the team its first victory at the 1951 British Grand Prix.

Alberto Ascari gave Ferrari its first Drivers Championship a year later. Ferrari is the oldest team left in the championship, not to mention the most successful: the team holds nearly every Formula One record. As of 2007, the team’s records include 15 World Drivers Championship titles (1952, 1953, 1956, 1958, 1961, 1964, 1975, 1977, 1979, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004 and 2007) 15 World Constructors Championship titles (1961, 1964, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1979, 1982, 1983, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004 and 2007), 201 Grand Prix victories, 4753.27 points, 603 podium finishes, 195 pole positions, 12,489 laps led, and 205 fastest laps in 758 Grands Prix contested.

Notable Ferrari drivers include Tazio Nuvolari, Juan Manuel Fangio, Luigi Chinetti, Alberto Ascari, Wolfgang von Trips, Phil Hill, Olivier Gendebien, Mike Hawthorn, Peter Collins, John Surtees, Lorenzo Bandini, Ludovico Scarfiotti, Jacky Ickx, Mario Andretti, Niki Lauda, Carlos Reutemann, Jody Scheckter, Gilles Villeneuve, Didier Pironi, Michele Alboreto, Gerhard Berger, Nigel Mansell, Alain Prost, Jean Alesi, Eddie Irvine, Rubens Barrichello, Michael Schumacher, Kimi Räikkönen, and Felipe Massa.

The Scuderia Ferrari drivers for the 2006 F1 season were Michael Schumacher and Felipe Massa. At the end of the 2006 season the team courted controversy by continuing to allow Marlboro to sponsor them after they, along with the other F1 teams, made a promise to end sponsorship deals with tobacco manufacturers. A five year deal worth a reported $500 million was agreed.

The drivers that are competing in 2007 are Felipe Massa and Kimi Räikkönen. Räikkönen went on to win the drivers championship, with Massa finishing 4th.

List of models: Until the early 1980s, Ferrari followed a three-number naming scheme based on engine displacement:

• V6 and V8 models used the total displacement (in decilitres) for the first two digits and the number of cylinders as the third. Thus, the 206 was a 2.0 L V6 powered vehicle, while the 348 used a 3.4 L V8, although, for the F355, the last digit refers to 5 valves per cylinder. Upon introduction of the 360 Modena, the digits for V8 models (which now carried a name as well as a number) refer only to total engine displacement. The numerical indication aspect of this name has carried on to the current V8 model, the F430.
• V12 models used the displacement (in cubic centimetres) of one cylinder. Therefore, the famed 365 Daytona had a 4390 cc V12. However, some newer V12-engined Ferraris, such as the 599, have three-number designations that refer only to total engine displacement.
• Flat 12 (boxer) models used the displacement in litres. Therefore, the 512BB was five litre flat 12 (a Berlinetta Boxer, in this case). However, the original Berlinetta Boxer was the 365 GT4 BB, which was named in a similar manner to the V12 models.
• Some models, such as the 1980 Mondial and the 1984 Testarossa did not follow a three-number naming scheme.

Most Ferraris were also given designations referring to their body style. In general, the following conventions were used:

• M standing for “Modificata,” this suffix placed at the end of a model’s number denotes that it is a modified version of its predecessor and not a complete evolution (see F512M and 575M Maranello).
• GTB models are closed Berlinettas, or coupes.
• GTS in older models, are open Spyders (spelt “y”), or convertibles (see 365 GTS4); however, in more recent models, this suffix is used for targa top models (see Dino 246 GTS, and F355 GTS; the exception being the 348 TS, which is the only targa named differently). The convertible models now use the suffix “Spider” (spelt “i”) (see F355 Spider, and 360 Spider).

This naming system can be confusing, as some entirely different vehicles used the same engine type and body style. Many Ferraris also had other names affixed (like Daytona) to identify them further. Many such names are actually not official factory names.

The Daytona name commemorates Ferrari’s triple success in the February 1967 24 Hours of Daytona with the 330P4. Only in the 1973 Daytona 24h, a 365 GTB4 model run by N.A.R.T. (North American Racing Team, who raced Ferrari’s in America) scored 2nd—behind a Porsche 911.

The various Dino models were named for Enzo’s son, Dino Ferrari, and are not formally Ferraris, though are to all intents and purposes considered so.

In the mid 1990s, Ferrari added the letter “F” to the beginning of all models (a practice abandoned after the F512M and F355, but adopted again with the F430).

Links:

• Ferrari Cars new Photos and Wallpapers: http://www.carxy.com/ferrari/
• Ferrari Logo (EPS) at 2WF.org: http://www.2wf.org/f-logos/ferrari.html

Stav was brought to the public by Ivar Hafskjold, who claims it is based on oral tradition preserved in his family for 44 generations, originating in circa 500 CE, though he has presented little evidence to back up this assertion. 

The name “Stav” / “Stáv” can be considered as a pun or play-on-words, meaning both ’stave’ e.g. as in a ‘rune-stave’, a runic character or rune, and also ’staff’ e.g. as a physical weapon employed in the martial art.

According to Ivar Hafskjold, the term “Stav” was his family’s informal name for their martial and runic practices, and comes from the expression sette stav (to set staves), which was how the training was described when he grew up. In the 1990s, Ivar Hafskjold took on four personal apprentice students; Shaun Brassfield-Thorpe, Kolbjorn Martens, David Watkinson and Graham Butcher.

All contemporary Stav teachers and instructors belong to a teaching lineage directly from either Ivar Hafskjold and/or one of his four personal students, each of whom are recognised by the Stav International organisation as “Stav Masters”.

Stáv is a Nordic style of martial arts based upon runic postures, using the 16 runes of the Younger Futhark Each of the runes can be found within the Stáv symbol above.

FE , UR , THOR , AS , REI , KREFT , HAGL , NOD , IS , AR , SOL , TYR , BJORK , MANN , LAUG , YR

Stáv (pronounced st-arv) is a traditional European system which is designed to improve the mind body and spirit. It has been maintained and developed for over 44 generations by the Norwegian Hafskjold family.

“Although based on an ancient philosophy, Stáv is a dynamic and evolving system that can be adapted to meet the requirements of the individual in today’s world. The principles have now been made available to a wider audience in order to preserve and enhance the system for future generations“.

Stav on some level resembles a Nordic form of Tai Chi, with the student beginning with ritualized stances resembling the sixteen runes of the Younger Futhark.

Once mastery of the rune stances has been achieved, the student progresses to staff exercises. Stav is intended to be a flexible set of principles instead of techniques, focusing on finding the lines of attack and defense in any combat situation and exploiting them to the student’s benefit. Stav practitioners begin by using staffs or cudgels but may in time progress to use battle-axes, swords, wands or even to the bare-handed stage.

Stáv is a Mind, Body Spirit system, comparable to Tai Chi and Yoga, but originating through the traditions and mythology of Northern Europe, rather than the Orient. It developed through the Norwegian family, Hafskjold, and is often referred to as Hafskjold Stáv.

The system helps people improve and develop themselves by dealing with them holistically. That is Stáv works on the whole person: their physical body, their mind (both logical and intuitive) and their spirituality. Only by working with all three can people develop into complete, fully rounded individuals. 

Stáv is a 1500 year old (living) runic tradition that has been preserved in Norway by the Hafskjold family. Stáv contains many aspects, including healings arts. Stáv Healing contains the use of postures, breath techniques, herbalism, joint manipulation, massage, counseling (via the runes) and many other aspects.

The stances have many benefits, many of which are only revealed once the stances have been performed regularly over a period of time. Two direct and almost immediate benefits can be obtained from the stances.

• The first is that they exercise the body gently and without pressure. They are very low impact exercises which can be performed no matter what your age or ability. The stances can be modified to compensate for injury and disability in order to gain the maximum benefit from them.
• The second is that they promote complete breathing using the whole of the lungs. This has shown to be beneficial to asthma and other respiratory ailment sufferers.

Regular practice of the stances brings other benefits including improved body posture, firmer stomach muscles and increased flexibility. Indeed those suffering from injury, stiffness in the joints and other restrictions to their movement can gain increased mobility and suppleness from performing the stances on a regular basis. The stances can also be a form of moving meditation which is useful for relaxation and in relieving stress and tension.

Links:

• The Stav Portal at the Martial Arts Database: http://www.mardb.com/stav/

Bruce Lee said:

“I have not invented a “new style,” composite, modified or otherwise that is set within distinct form as apart from “this” method or “that” method. On the contrary, I hope to free my followers from clinging to styles, patterns, or molds. Remember that Jeet Kune Do is merely a name used, a mirror in which to see “ourselves”. . . Jeet Kune Do is not an organized institution that one can be a member of. Either you understand or you don’t, and that is that. There is no mystery about my style.

My movements are simple, direct and non-classical. The extraordinary part of it lies in its simplicity. Every movement in Jeet Kune-Do is being so of itself. There is nothing artificial about it. I always believe that the easy way is the right way. Jeet Kune-Do is simply the direct expression of one’s feelings with the minimum of movements and energy. The closer to the true way of Kung Fu, the less wastage of expression there is. Finally, a Jeet Kune Do man who says Jeet Kune Do is exclusively Jeet Kune Do is simply not with it.

He is still hung up on his self-closing resistance, in this case anchored down to reactionary pattern, and naturally is still bound by another modified pattern and can move within its limits. He has not digested the simple fact that truth exists outside all molds; pattern and awareness is never exclusive. Again let me remind you Jeet Kune Do is just a name used, a boat to get one across, and once across it is to be discarded and not to be carried on one’s back.”

System: Jeet Kune Do (JKD) is the name Bruce Lee gave to his combat philosophy in 1967. Originally, when Lee first began researching various fighting styles, he gave his martial art his own name of Jun Fan Gung Fu. However not wanting to create another style that would share the limitations that all styles have, he instead gave us the process that created it. JKD as it survives today – if one wants to view it “refined” as a product, not a process – is what was left at the time of Bruce Lee’s death.

It is the result of the life-long martial arts development process Lee went through. Bruce Lee stated that his concept is not an “adding to” of more and more things on top of each other to form a system, but rather, a winnowing out.

The metaphor Lee borrowed from Chan Buddhism was of constantly filling a cup with water, and then emptying it, used for describing Lee’s philosophy of “casting off what is useless”. He also used the sculptor’s mentality of beginning with a lump of clay and hacking away at the “unessentials”; the end result was what he considered to be the bare combat essentials, or JKD.

Bruce Lee, and thus JKD was heavily influenced by European boxing and fencing. Although the backbone concepts (such as centerline, vertical punching, and forward pressure) come from Wing Chun, Lee stopped using the Wing Chun stances in favor of what he considered to be more fluid/flexible fencing and boxing stances. Lee stated that they allowed him to “flow” rather than being stuck in stances.

For instance, instead of using footwork to position the body for maximum fighting position vis-a-vis the opponent, JKD uses flowing “entries” that do not require “bridges” from Wing Chun. Bruce Lee wanted to create a martial art that was unbounded and free. Later during the development of Jeet Kune Do, he would expand that notion and include the art for personal development, not just to become a better fighter.

To illustrate Lee’s views, in a 1971 Black Belt Magazine article, Lee said “Let it be understood once and for all that I have NOT invented a new style, composite or modification. I have in no way set Jeet Kune Do within a distinct form governed by laws that distinguish it from ‘this’ style or ‘that’ method. On the contrary, I hope to free my comrades from bondage to styles, patterns and doctrines.”

While practicing European wrestling, Lee was once pinned by an opponent, who asked what Lee would do if he found himself in the situation in a real fight. Lee replied, “Well, I’d bite you, of course”. One of the theories of JKD is that a fighter should do whatever is necessary to defend himself, regardless of where the techniques used come from. Lee’s goal in Jeet Kune Do was to break down what he claimed were limiting factors in the training of the traditional styles, and seek a fighting thesis which he believed could only be found within the event of a fight. Jeet Kune Do is currently seen as the genesis of the modern state of hybrid martial arts.

Jeet Kune Do not only advocates the combination of aspects of different styles, it also can change many of those aspects that it adopts to suit the abilities of the practitioner. Additionally, JKD advocates that any practitioner be allowed to interpret techniques for themselves, and change them for their own purposes. For example, Lee almost always chose to put his power hand in the “lead,” with his weaker hand back, within this stance he used elements of Boxing, Fencing and Wing Chun. Just like fencing, he labeled this position the “On Guard” position. Lee incorporated this position into his JKD as he felt it provided the best overall mobility.

Lee felt that the dominant or strongest hand should be in the lead because it would perform a greater percentage of the work. Lee minimized the use of other stances except when circumstances warranted such actions. Although the On-Guard position is a good overall stance, it is by no means the only one. Lee acknowledged that there were times when other positions should be utilized.

Lee felt the dynamic property of JKD was what enabled its practitioners to adapt to the constant changes and fluctuations of live combat. Lee believed that these decisions should be done within the context of “real combat” and/or “all out sparring”. He believed that it was only in this environment that a person could actually deem a technique worthy of adoption.

Bruce Lee did not stress the memorization of solo training forms or “Kata”, as most traditional styles do in their beginning-level training. Lee often compared doing forms without an opponent to attempting to learn to swim on dry land. Lee believed that real combat was alive and dynamic. Circumstances in a fight change from millisecond to millisecond, and thus pre-arranged patterns and techniques are not adequate in dealing with such a changing situation. As an anecdote to this thinking, Lee once wrote an epitaph which read: ‘In memory of a once fluid man, crammed and distorted by the classical mess.’ The “classical mess” in this instance was what Lee thought of classical martial arts.

Bruce Lee’s comments and methods were seen as controversial by many in his time, and still are today. Many teachers from traditional schools disagreed with his opinions on these issues.

The notion of cross-training in Jeet Kune Do is similar to the practice of Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) in modern times — Bruce Lee has been considered by UFC president Dana White as the “father of mixed martial arts”. Many consider Jeet Kune Do to be the precursor of MMA because of its synteric nature. This is particularly the case with respect to the JKD “Combat Ranges”. A JKD student is expected to learn various combat systems within each combat range, and thus to be effective in all of them, just as in MMA.

Principles: The following are principles that Lee incorporated into Jeet Kune Do. He felt these were universal combat truths that were self evident and would lead to combat success if followed. The “4 Combat Ranges” in particular are what he felt were instrumental in becoming a “total” martial artist. This is also the principle most related to mixed martial arts.

JKD practitioners also subscribe to the notion that the best defense is a strong offense, hence the principle of “Intercepting”. Lee believed that in order for an opponent to attack someone they had to move towards them.

This provided an opportunity to “intercept” that attack or movement. The principle of interception covers more than just intercepting physical attacks. Lee believed that many non-verbals and telegraphs (subtle movements that an opponent is unaware of) could be perceived or “intercepted” and thus be used to one’s advantage.

The “5 Ways of Attack” are attacking categories that help Jeet Kune Do practitioners organize their fighting repertoire and comprise the offensive portion of JKD. The concepts of Stop hits & stop kicks and simultaneous parrying & punching were borrowed from European Fencing and comprise the defensive portion of JKD. These concepts were modified for unarmed combat and implemented into the JKD framework by Lee. These concepts also complement the other principle of interception.

• Be like water:Lee believed that martial systems should be as flexible as possible. He often used water as an analogy for describing why flexibility is a desired trait in martial arts. Water is infinitely flexible. It can be seen through, and yet at other times it can obscure things from sight. It can split and go around things, rejoining on the other side, or it can crash through things. It can erode the hardest rocks by gently lapping away at them or it can flow past the tiniest pebble. Lee believed that a martial system should have these attributes. JKD students reject traditional systems of training, fighting styles and the Confucian pedagogy used in traditional kung fu schools because of this lack of flexibility. JKD is claimed to be a dynamic concept that is forever changing, thus being extremely flexible. “Absorb what is useful; Disregard that which is useless” is an often quoted Bruce Lee maxim. JKD students are encouraged to study every form of combat possible. This is believed to expand one’s knowledge of other fighting systems; to both add to one’s arsenal as well as to know how to defend against such tactics.
• Economy of motion: JKD students are told to waste no time or movement. When it comes to combat JKD practitioners believe the simplest things work best.
• Stop hits & stop kicks: This means intercepting an opponent’s attack with an attack of your own instead of a simple block. JKD practitioners believe that this is the most difficult defensive skill to develop. This strategy can be a feature of some traditional Chinese martial arts.
• Simultaneous parrying & punching: When confronting an incoming attack, the attack is parried or deflected and a counter attack is delivered at the same time. Not as advanced as a stop hit but more effective than blocking and counter attacking in sequence. This is also practiced by some Chinese martial arts.
• No high kicks: JKD practitioners believe they should target their kicks to their opponent’s shins, knees, thighs, and mid section. These targets are the closest to the foot, provide more stability and are more difficult to defend against. However, as with all other JKD principles nothing is “written in stone”. If a target of opportunity presents itself, even a target above the waist, one could take advantage of the situation without feeling hampered by this principle.
• Learn the 4 ranges of combat: Kicking, Punching, Trapping, Grappling.
  Jeet Kune Do students train in each of these ranges equally. According to Lee, this range of training serves to differentiate JKD from other martial arts. Lee stated that most but not all traditional martial systems specialize in training at one or two ranges. Bruce Lee’s theories have been especially influential and substantiated in the field of Mixed Martial Arts, as the MMA Phases of Combat are essentially the same concept as the JKD combat ranges. As a historical note, the ranges in JKD have evolved over time. Initially the ranges were categorized as short or close, medium, and long range. These terms proved ambiguous and eventually evolved into their more descriptive forms although there may still be others who prefer the three categories.

Five Ways Of Attack:

• Single Angular Attack (SAA) and its converse Single Direct Attack (SDA).
• Hand Immobilization Attack (HIA) and its counterpart Foot Immobilization attack, which make use of trapping to limit the opponent’s function with that appendage.
• Progressive Indirect Attack (PIA). Attacking one part of the opponent’s body followed by attacking another part as a means of creating an opening.
• Attack By Combinations (ABC). This is using multiple rapid attacks, with volume of attack as a means of overcoming the opponent.
• Attack By Drawing (ABD). This is creating an opening with positioning as a means of counter attacking.

Three Parts of JKD: JKD practitioners believe that techniques should contain the following properties:

• Efficiency – An attack that reaches its mark
• Directness – Doing what comes naturally in a learned way.
• Simplicity – Thinking in an uncomplicated manner; without ornamentation.

Centerline: The centerline refers to an imaginary line running down the center of one’s body. The theory is to exploit, control and dominate your opponent’s centerline. All attacks, defenses and footwork are designed to preserve your own centerline and open your opponent’s. Lee incorporated this theory into JKD from Wing Chun. This notion is closely related to maintaining control of the center squares in the strategic game chess.

The three guidelines for centerline are:

• The one who controls the centerline will control the fight.
• Protect and maintain your own centerline while you control and exploit your opponent’s.
• Control the centerline by occupying it.

Branches: Although Bruce Lee officially closed his martial arts schools two years before his death, he allowed his curriculum to be taught privately. Since his death, Jeet Kune Do is argued to have split into different groups. Allegedly they are:

• The Original (or Jun Fan) JKD branch, whose proponents include Taky Kimura, James Lee, Jerry Poteet, and Ted Wong; these groups claim to teach what was believed to be only what was taught by Bruce Lee, and encourage the student to further develop his or her abilities through those teachings. The inherent training princicples of this branch are shaped by the static concept of what was “originally taught”, just as the training systems of “traditional” martial arts have been taught for centuries and become recognizable as “styles”, except it is referred to as a philosophy of “style without style”.
• The JKD Concepts branch, whose proponents include Dan Inosanto, and Larry Hartsell; these groups strive to continue the philosophy of individual self-expression through re-interpretation of combat systems through the lens of Jeet Kune Do, under the concept that it was never meant to be a static art but rather an ongoing evolution, and have incorporated elements from many other martial arts into the main fold of its teachings (most notably, grappling and Kali / Escrima material) based on the individual’s personal preferences and physical attributes. The entire JKD “system” can be described through a simple diagram, and the concepts can then be applied to a variety of contexts in a “universal” way.

To understand the branches of JKD it is important to understand the difference between the two “types” or viewpoints of Jeet Kune Do:

• A. JKD framework This type of JKD provides the guiding principles. Bruce Lee experimented with many styles and techniques to reach these conclusions. To Lee these principles were truisms. The JKD framework is not bound or confined by any styles or systems. This type of JKD is a process.
• B. JKD Personal Systems This type of JKD utilizes the JKD framework along with any techniques from any other style or system to construct a “personal system”. This approach utilizes a “building blocks” manner in which to construct a personalized system that is especially tailored to an individual. Lee believed that only an individual could determine for themselves what the usefulness of any technique should be. This type of JKD is thus a product.

Lee believed that this freedom of adoption was a distinguishing property from traditional martial arts. There are many who confuse the JKD Framework with a JKD Personal System (IE. Bruce Lee’s personal JKD) thinking them to be one and the same. The system that Bruce Lee personally expressed was his own personal JKD; tailored for himself. Before he could do this, however, he needed to first develop the “JKD Framework” process. Many of the systems that Bruce Lee studied were not to develop his “Personal JKD” but rather was used to gather the “principles” for incorporation in the JKD Framework approach. The uniqueness of JKD to Lee is that it was a “process” not a “product” and thus not a “style” but a system, concept, or approach. Traditional martial arts styles are essentially a product that is given to a student with little provision for change. These traditional styles are usually fixed and not tailored for individuals. Bruce Lee claimed there were inherent problems with this approach and established a “Process” based system rather than a fixed style which a student could then utilize to make a “tailored” or “Personal” product of their own.

The two branches of JKD differ in what should be incorporated or offered within the “JKD Framework”. The Original (or Jun Fan) JKD branch believes that the original principles before Bruce Lee died are all that is needed for the construction of personalized systems. The JKD Concepts branch believe that there are further principles that can be added to construct personalized systems. The value of each Branch can be determined by individual practitioners based on whatever merits they deem important.

Bruce Lee: Bruce Lee studied the martial arts style of Wing Chun and was a student of Yip Man in Hong Kong. Later, he learned other arts as well as the sports of western boxing and European fencing. The term Jeet Kune Do occurred in 1968 while Dan Inosanto and Bruce Lee were driving around in his car.

The conversation involved European fencing and Lee commented that; “the most efficient means of countering in fencing was the stop-hit…When the opponent attacks, you intercept his move with a thrust or hit of your own..” Lee then said “We should call our method the ’stop-hitting fist style;, or the ‘intercepting fist style”. Dan Inosanto then said; “What would that be in Chinese?” in which Lee replied “That would be Jeet Kune Do”.

A relevant video source of Bruce Lee discussing his Jeet Kune Do actually appeared in the first episode of the television series Longstreet. The first episode was aptly titled “The Way of the Intercepting Fist”. The episode was written specifically for Lee by his friend and long time supporter Stirling Silliphant.

Bruce Lee Quotes:

• “ The usefulness of a cup is its emptiness. – Be prepared to accept new knowledge and not be hindered or biased by old knowledge. This quote originates from the Tao Te Ching, by Lao Tzu, the founder of Taoism.”
• “ Using no way as way. – Don’t have preconceived notions about anything. This statement is embedded in the Jeet Kune Do logo. It was also used by Bruce Lee often to describe JKD. ”
• “ Having no limitation as limitation. – Don’t be confined by anything, achieve true freedom. This statement is embedded in the Jeet Kune Do logo. ”
• “ From form to formless and from finite to infinite. – Don’t be confined by limitations and forms. By not having specific form all forms can be included. ”
• “ The consciousness of “self” is the greatest hindrance to the proper execution of all physical action. – This is actually a Zen or Chán maxim which means to “be in the moment” and not be distracted by your own thought process. The Zen quote is: “If you seek it, you will not find it”. The “Western” counterpart to this is the term “Being in the Zone”. ”
• “ If people say Jeet Kune Do is different from “this” or from “that,” then let the name of Jeet Kune Do be wiped out, for that is what it is, just a name. Please don’t fuss over it. – Don’t get hung up on labels and parameters. JKD is alive and therefore always changing; don’t try to box it in. ”
• “ To reach me, you must move to me. Your attack offers me an opportunity to intercept you. – Lee explaining the principle of interception to Duke Paige from the television show Longstreet.”
• “ Empty your mind. Be formless shapeless like water. Now you put water into a cup, it becomes the cup. You put water into a bottle, it becomes the bottle. You put it into a teapot, it becomes the teapot. Now, water can either flow, or it can crash! Be like water, my friend. – Lee explaining the principle of being like water in a Hong Kong television interview.

Links:

• The Art of Jeet Kune Do: http://www.westlord.com/jeetkunedo/
• Bruce Lee Website: http://www.westlord.com/brucelee/
• Bruce Lee Quotes: http://www.westlord.com/brucelee/eng-quote.html
• Bruce Lee Photos and Pictures: http://www.westlord.com/brucelee/eng-photo.html
• Bruce Lee Books: http://www.westlord.com/brucelee/eng-books.html
• The Jeet Kune Do Portal: http://www.mardb.com/jeet-kune-do/

This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been reviewed by professional editors, This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License.

Undoubtedly the most recognized personality to emerge from World Wrestling Entertainment (formerly known as the World Wrestling Federation), Hulk Hogan maintained enormous popularity as a professional wrestler throughout a long career that saw its share of dizzying highs and humiliating lows. Though wrestling had always been defined by absolutes — the morality tale of good versus evil – the story behind the scenes was far more complex, as personal tragedies entangled in an intricate web of a billion-dollar business.

For Hogan, however, brushes with scandal did little to unhinge a successful career that saw his face on lunch pails, bed sheets and movie posters the world over. With his induction into the WWE Hall of Fame in 2005, he cemented his place in wrestling’s elite and the cultural pantheon.

Born Terry Bollea in Tampa, FL, to a construction worker dad and homemaker mom, Hogan was always athletic, wrestling and playing Little League in his youth. His fast-growing frame required more food than normal – a typical breakfast consisted of 10 eggs, 12-ounces of hamburger and a quart of orange juice. By the time he graduated Robinson High School, Hogan was 6’7” and weighed over 300 pounds. While in high school, he began playing bass in local bands, earning $300-400 per week at clubs and parties.

He later attended Hillsborough Community College, then the University of South Florida, where he studied music and finance. But Hogan wanted to play music rather than study, so he quit college to focus on his band. Music, however, soon gave way to the humdrum life of bank telling, where Hogan routinely witnessed bruised and burly men with few teeth cashing rather large checks. When he later discovered they were wrestlers, Hogan contacted a local promoter, who challenged the upstart to an audition. Though he broke his ankle, he returned three months later, humbled and ready to learn. He even began working out to trim his bulky frame to a lean 220.

Hogan began his career under the persona Terry Boulder and earned $125 a week while sleeping in his car. He moved around – Minnesota, Florida, Tennessee and Georgia – wrestling under different guises, like the masked Super Destroyer or Sterling Gordon, before eventually settling on Hulk Hogan. Meanwhile, wrestling impresario Vince McMahon saw him on television and invited Hogan to wrestle at Madison Square Garden.

After 18 months with the growing WWF, he was given a note backstage from Sylvester Stallone asking him to appear in “Rocky III” (1982). Thinking it a hoax, Hogan ignored the request and went to wrestle in Japan for eight weeks. Upon his return, however, he received another message from Stallone: Come to LA, now. Despite warnings from McMahon, who had Hogan booked for a match in North Carolina, the young wrestler left for the West Coast.

After appearing in “Rocky III” as Thunderlips, a pro wrestler who challenges the boxing champ in a free-for-all match, Hogan became an overnight celebrity and helped the regional WWF become a national phenomenon. Hogan’s intense following was dubbed “Hulkamania,” with his red and yellow bandanas, handlebar mustache and 24-inch pythons soon becoming widely recognized trademarks – even outside the wrestling world. To add to the brouhaha, on Jan. 24, 1984, Hogan defeated his arch nemesis, the Iron Sheik, at the Garden, earning Hogan his first world title. The following year saw the birth of the yearly Pay-Per-View event, “Wrestlemania,” in which Hogan joined “Rocky III” co-star Mr. T in a tag-team bout against “Rowdy” Roddy Piper and “Mr. Wonderful” Paul Orndorff. But it was in “Wrestlemania III” (1987) that Hogan cemented his fame when he paired off against Andre the Giant, lifting the 500-pound wrestler for a winning body slam – perhaps the most talked about match in “Wrestlemania” history.

Throughout the 1980s and early 1990s, Hogan won and lost heavyweight championships, and was on the card for nine consecutive Wrestlemanias. Meanwhile, he ventured into acting with “No Holds Barred” (1989), playing an up-and-coming wrestling star forced into a match after his brother is injured by his nemesis. Not much of a stretch for the novice actor. Predictably, the movie bombed at the box office. After a cameo in “Gremlins 2: The New Batch” (1990), Hogan starred as an intergalactic hero stranded on Earth in the sci-fi comedy, “Suburban Commando” (1991). He then tried his hand at domestic comedy with “Mr. Nanny” (1993), playing a down-and-out wrestler who becomes a family’s bodyguard for extra cash. Though he did all he could for laughs – even donning a pink tutu and singing “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star” – the movie bombed.

In the early 1990s, Hogan became entangled in a drug scandal that rocked professional wrestling to its core. He was first accused by former wrestlers – including “Superstar” Billy Graham – of abusing steroids throughout the 1970s and 80s, while Barry Orton claimed that Hogan did cocaine. To mitigate the damage, Hogan went on “The Arsenio Hall Show” (Syndicated, 1989-1994) and explained away the accusations, claiming that he was prescribed steroids to treat an injury and had used them only a few times.

But in 1994, he proffered testimony to the contrary after being granted immunity in Vince McMahon’s trial for illegally providing steroids to his wrestlers. Hogan admitted what others had previously claimed; that he had used the illegal substance for almost two decades. Meanwhile, he left the WWF for Ted Turner’s World Championship Wrestling, where he adopted the bad-guy persona, Hollywood Hogan.

Hogan stayed with the WCW for the next 10 years while he continued acting, albeit in much lower-profile features. Most titles – “Thunder in Paradise” (1993), “The Secret Agent Club” (1996), “Santa with Muscles” (1996) and “McCinsey’s Island” (1997), all riffs on his tough guy image – went straight to video. He then joined former “Rocky III” costar Carl Weathers for “Assault on Devil’s Island” (TNT, 1997), playing a retired Navy Seal who leads a special commando team to rescue a gymnastics team kidnapped by a South American drug cartel. He returned for the sequel, “Shadow Warriors 2” (TNT, 1999), in which his character, Mike McBride, is injected with a deadly serum by Middle Eastern terrorists. Meanwhile, Hogan dipped his toe into episodic television, appearing on “Suddenly Susan” (NBC, 1996-2000) and “Walker, Texas Ranger” (CBS, 1993-2001).

In 2002, Hogan made a triumphant return to the WWE when he faced another wrestling star-turned-actor, Dwayne “The Rock” Johnson, in a special Pay-Per-View event. But despite his return – along with many other former favorites of the WWE – wrestling was rapidly losing television viewers and live audiences due to accusations of fakery, over-saturation and weak storylines.

Hogan left wrestling in 2003 – supposedly for good – before he was inducted in the WWE Hall of Fame in 2005. But an impassioned chant from fans during the ceremony at the Universal Amphitheater for “one more match” induced Hogan to return once again.

In the Pay-Per-View show, “Backlash,” he participated in a tag team match with Shawn Michaels and notched another win on his belt. Meanwhile, Hogan joined the reality show craze, allowing cameras to intrude upon him and his family for “Hogan Knows Best” (2005- ), VH-1’s answer to “The Osbournes” (MTV, 2002-2005). Viewers found the famous wrestler’s overprotective ways with his beautiful daughter Brooke Hogan particularly, amusing – especially when male beaus came calling.

Raye Hollitt appeared in Season 1 of American Gladiators in 1989, taking off the second season (1990-91) for maternity leave, before returning for Season 3 and continuing on the show through 1995. She reappeared for an alumni show in the final season (1995-96). Hollitt married Ted Prior in 1990 and has one child. She is currently married to photographer George Kontaxis.

Raye Hollitt, best known for her role as “Zap” on the hit, syndicated television show The American Gladiators, was a formidable presence for 6 seasons Growing up in Harvey’s Lake, Pennsylvania, where she lived until the age of 18, Raye developed her competitive spirit by participating in such sports as softball, basketball, field hockey, track and field and volleyball. 

It was in 1982 that she knew where her life was leading. After moving to the mecca of bodybuilding in Venice, California, she began to pursue a bodybuilding career.  After winning the 1988 Ms. Los Angeles Bodybuilding Championships, Raye landed her first major role in the Blake Edwards hit film titled “Skin Deep” starring John Ritter.

In addition to her popularity as an American Gladiator, Raye has appeared on several television shows, namely, Blossom and Baywatch, as well as several top-name talk shows including: The Tonight Show with Jay Leno,  MTV with Pauly Shore, Good Morning America,  Beach House w/Jenny McCarthy, the Muppet’s Tonight Show, Lifestyles of the Rich and Famous, The Joan Rivers Show, Montel Williams,  and the Jenny Jones Show.

1995 was a busy year for Raye, as she shot a 6-page celebrity pictorial for Playboy’s February 1996 issue.  Also that year, Raye was cast as Lt. Cassie Puller for the pilot of NBC’s “JAG” (Judge Advocate General) directed by Don Bellisario.  Her last film Brand X, where Raye plays a futuristic superhero was  released on video in  2001.  Raye was also cast as a regular on UPN/Paramount’s Manhunt as Rayne, a Survivor-like, reality-based television show.  The past two and a half years has kept Raye busy with the production of her own project, the Sagas of Reya, a series about the voyages of a female Viking warrior and her entourage.

The discipline of being a competitive bodybuilder has helped Raye to obtain and succeed at many of her goals that she set for herself.  Her motto is: ‘Believe and Achieve’.  Her personal data reads of a true athlete, standing  5 feet 7 inches tall and a toned body of 135 pounds.

She is a former paralegal. She posed for Playboy in February 1996. She appeared for many years in local television commercials for “Ye Olde Clock and Gift Shop” in Dallas, a small town just outside her hometown of Wilkes-Barre.

Special Combat Aggressive Reactionary Systems

http://www.mardb.com/scars/

Special Combat Aggressive Reactionary Systems or S.C.A.R.S. is a martial arts fighting system/combative created by Jerry L. Peterson, based in part on his background in San Soo kung fu and from his personal experiences in the Vietnam War.

Currently marketed through private seminars and videotape. Initial presentation of SCARS to the Department of the Navy in 1988 led to its adoption into military use. From 1989-94 Peterson personally headed up the development and training of the SCARS programs as part of a BUD/S (Basic Underwater Demolition/SEAL) candidate course and produced SCARS qualified SEAL instructors. While the SCARS Institute of Combat Sciences claims to have instructed the branches of the Army, Airforce as well as foreign governments and various law enforcement agencies, to what extent is unknown at this time.

According to official Naval Special Warfare documents obtained through the FOIA, stated on 03/03/98 that the Advanced NSW Combat Fighting Course (CFC) was recommended for cancellation due to the fact, “…that the 30-day. Advanced Combat Fighting Course was no longer utilized by the components; it has been 2-years since the course has been run. Generally, the components can’t lose someone for the 30-days that the course runs.”

Cancellation of the SCARS course was approved on April 17, 1998 by the Naval Special Warfare Commander, G.M. Moy, Assistant Chief of Staff for Operations. (FOIA document 1500 Ser N32/0293 17 Apr 98).  Criticisms: Within the martial arts community, Peterson and SCARS have been subject to no small amount controversy, having been variously accused of being unreliable, unrealistic, a hodgepodge, or simply a stripped-down version of San Soo.

The conception of SCARS began in real combat 1968-69 Vietnam Jerry L. Peterson, then a soldier in the elite Army Reaction Force of the 173rd Airborne Charlie Company, found that the close combat training he had received was nearly useless against the grim realities of 20th century warfare. He and the soldiers in his unit were forced to learn close combat by trial and error, in a place where error meant death. He was convinced there had to be a better way to train for, and successfully execute, close combat.

The psychological development of the fearless mind-set process. Jerry formulated concepts and theories that applied to human movement and psychological survival under do-or-die conditions. His early analytical and physical techniques worked, giving him the tools to survive numerous combat engagements. But Jerry wanted more, he wanted to know why the human species would be fearless one day and then frozen in fear another causing him or her to die? Mr. Peterson would discover and verify after 20 years of personal research that he had created a process to eliminate fear. This meant the total destruction of fear in the human brain. Not controlling fear with over training or conquering fear with shear willpower, he simply removed it from the psyche of the human brain, accomplishing the first goal of human control, a fearless mind set. He knew that the mind controlled all body processes that would inevitably lead to life or death in a high-risk action.

Five questions that needed to be answered: The first side of the coin had been cast, which is a simple direct process that creates the most feared concept in any conflict, a human without fear, yet having compassion and understanding of his environment, the ultimate man. However that is only one side of the coin, what about the sciences of human movement? This area would prove no less daunting, but it had to be asked and then resolved:

1) Why is one man’s fighting art form better than the other?
2) Why does a professional fighter lose to someone with no trained skills?
3) Why did the United States military not have a standard for controlling human violence in close combat?
4) Why does every law enforcement agency have a different defensive tactic course?
5) Why is there no science to human movement for a violent action?
6) Why indeed- as we start the 21st century no one has a defined the scientific path to this much-needed science of human control. In this day and age law enforcement agencies still struggle to find a well-defined set of principles for human control in a violent action. Principles that will reduce liability decrease injury to the subject and increase safety for the officer.

1988: Jerry Peterson’s SCARS tested By United States Navy Special Warfare Command (SEALS). SCARS officially approved and implemented as the standard for close combat by U.S. Special Operational Forces: To date, Jerry Peterson is the only individual ever to have established a proven set of principles based in modern sciences. His credibility received the attention of the United States Navy Special Warfare Command at Coronado, Calif. (US Navy SEAL headquarters). The Special Warfare Department of the Navy begin contracting Mr. Peterson and his corporation (SCARS Institute Of Combat Sciences) in 1988 to develop a program that would universally apply both physiological and physical fields of CQB (Close Quarters Battle).

Between November 1988 and February 1989 Mr. Peterson and the US NAVY began testing the SCARS project with combat veterans within the SEAL ranks. The Navy was restricted to combat Veterans that had either real world hand to hand combat and/or advanced training in any form of fighting art [martial arts]. After three months of physical testing the Navy agreed that SCARS had proven beyond a shadow of a doubt not to stem from a style of (Martial Arts). SCARS is 100% effective in all CQB actions. This system could possibly be the standard for hand-to-weapons combat for the US Navy Special Warfare Command Department (SEALS).

In March 1989 the Navy and Mr. Peterson agreed that further development and testing was warranted. The Navy agreed not to divulge any information on the SCARS project to the public. Mr. Peterson also agreed not to release any mission specific information about the training & SCARS. Should SCARS be given official sanction and approval by CNET, (Command for Navy Educational Training) limited statements could then be released. Doing this allowed Mr. Peterson’s SCAR-system to be tested in every condition of combat and/or police action that may arise in the world for which the military may be used.

Around April 1989 the Department of the Navy officially contracted Mr. Peterson and his corporation to began further development of the SCARS program.

The SCARS project was tasked with four main objectives:

• Develop and implement a basic hand-to-weapons program for the Basic Underwater Demolition School (BUDS).
• Develop and implement a platoon combat course for qualifying platoon deployment.
• Develop and implement a combat ready course for Special Boat Units.
• Develop and implement a Force Multiplier program to certify U.S. Navy SEALS as subject matter experts in the field of hand-to-weapon combat, both in non-lethal and lethal use of force.

From 1989-94 Mr. Peterson personally headed up the development and training of the SCARS programs. After 5-1/2 years of development and testing of SCARS by the Special Warfare Command the US NAVY SEALS received official approval from the Navy Department of Education CNET. This was the first time in history of the US Navy that a hand to weapons system had officially been approved as a standard of combat. After official approval of all of the SCARS programs Mr. Peterson licensed the Navy to conduct the SCARS Force Multiplier Train the Trainer Program. (To this date Mr. Peterson has restricted all licenses to certify subject matter experts in the SCARS system of sciences solely to the US Special Operation Community. There are only two places to receive this official information. One is in the US Special Operation Community. The other is at the SCARS Institute Of Combat Sciences in Phoenix AZ.)

Shortly after the SCARS/CFC (Special Combat Aggressive Reactionary Systems Combat Fighting Course) was officially implemented. The US Navy West-coast command requested a SCARS military demonstration.

The SCARS program was presented to The United States Secretary Of State, the Commanding Four Star General of the US Army, the Secretary of the Navy and other political personnel, all gave their overwhelming approval of the program.

From 1993-to present this program has produced over 300 SCARS subject matter experts in the field of non-lethal and lethal hand-to-weapons action. (No military SCARS instructor can teach the SCARS program outside of the military.)

S.C.A.R.S. (military) at the Martial Arts Database: http://www.mardb.com/scars/